WADA is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2026-05-25. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Common synonyms | Cardarine, GW501516, GW-501516, endurobol | Names vary by supplier and literature source. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Consistent with many small-molecule research chemicals. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Often prepared in organic solvent for laboratory work. |
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. |
Safety concerns emerged from long-term animal studies. In rodents given the compound for extended periods, researchers found an increased incidence of certain cancers, including liver and bladder tumors. These findings contributed to the discontinuation of clinical development. Whether similar risks apply to short-term or low-level exposure in humans is not established, and controlled human safety data are limited. The relevance of high-dose rodent carcinogenicity findings to human use remains a subject of debate.
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
== Bibliography == Dugo, Giovanni; Bonaccorsi, Ivana (2013). Citrus bergamia: Bergamot and its Derivatives. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – Industrial Profiles (Book 51). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1439862278. Costa, Rosaria; Dugo, Paola; Navarra, Michele; Raymo, Vilfredo; Dugo, Giovanni; Mondello, Luigi (2010). "Study on the chemical composition variability of some processed bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oils". Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 25 (1): 4–12. doi:10.1002/ffj.1949. ISSN 0882-5734. Mangiola, Carlo; Postorino, Enrico; Gionfriddo, Francesco; Catalfamo, Maurizio; Manganaro, Renato; Calabrò, Giuseppe (October 2009). "Evaluation of the Genuineness of Cold-pressed Bergamot Oil". Perfumer & Flavorist: 26–31. Alp Kunkar and Ennio Kunkar, "Bergamotto e le sue essenze", Edizioni A Z A. Kunkar, C. Kunkar: Supercritical CO2 extraction of bergamot oil from peel; Int. Cong. Medicinal plants and essential oils- Anadolu üniversıtesi-Eskişehir Turkey
=== Antigen discrimination === A unique feature of T cells is their ability to discriminate between healthy and abnormal (e.g. infected or cancerous) cells in the body. Healthy cells typically express a large number of self derived pMHC on their cell surface and although the T cell antigen receptor can interact with at least a subset of these self pMHC, the T cell generally ignores these healthy cells. However, when these very same cells contain even minute quantities of pathogen derived pMHC, T cells are able to become activated and initiate immune responses. The ability of T cells to ignore healthy cells but respond when these same cells contain pathogen (or cancer) derived pMHC is known as antigen discrimination. The molecular mechanisms that underlie this process are controversial.
=== Understanding before science === The value of eating certain foods to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified in modern science. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advance of ocean voyages during the Age of Discovery resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Researchers at the MD Anderson Cancer Center activated the telomerase reverse transcriptase gene, which declines with age, in mice and found that it both lengthened telomeres in cells and that signs of aging in cells that had not synthesized telomeres were also ameliorated suggesting that telomerase reverse transcriptase is responsible for regulating genes involved in aging independent of its role in building telomeres. Researchers at the Institute for Research in Biomedicine demonstrated that senescent cells release mt-dsRNA into the cytosol driving the SASP via RIGI/MDA5/MAVS/MFN1, and in turn are hypersensitive to mt-dsRNA-driven inflammation due to reduced levels of PNPT1/ADAR1. Moreover, senescent cells within fibrotic and aged tissues also present increased dsRNA foci, and inhibition of mitochondrial RNA polymerase reduces systemic inflammation associated to senescence. A study at Tufts Medical Center identified more than 300 unique metabolic markers associated with aging, extreme longevity, and mortality. Researchers at Stanford University reported reversing signs of Alzheimer's disease in the brains of mice by removing the enzyme IDO1, which changed the behavior of astrocytes, as IDO1 levels rise in the brain and astrocytes stop performing their function when Alzheimer's appears. The results were repeated with human astrocytes and neurons from Alzheimer's patients.
The study had three main findings: (1) People living in individualistic, rather than collectivist, societies are happier; (2) Psychological attributes referencing the individual are more relevant to Westerners; (3) Self-evaluating happiness levels depend on different cues, and experiences, from one's culture. The results of a study by Chang E. C. showed that Asian Americans and Caucasian Americans have similar levels of optimism but Asian Americans are far more pessimistic than Caucasian Americans. However, there were no major differences in depression across cultures. On the other hand, pessimism was positively linked to problem solving behaviors for Asian Americans, but was negatively linked for Caucasian Americans.
== Education == After graduating from National Taiwan University, Chen completed doctoral studies in the United States and earned his Ph.D. in physical chemistry from Iowa State University in 1997 under professor Cheuk-yiu Ng. She then completed post-doctoral research at Ames Laboratory in 1997, and then at Yuan-Pern Lee's group at National Tsing Hua University in 1999.
High-throughput DNA sequencing in the 2010s greatly expanded the scale of data in lichen systematics, allowing entire genomes to be analyzed and timelines of lichen evolution to be estimated. Researchers could sequence hundreds of genes or whole genomes, for both the fungal partner and, in some cases, the photobiont. Phylogenomics applies the same tree-building principles but with exponentially larger datasets, offering greater resolving power. A comparative review by Divakar and Crespo (2015) argues that genome‑scale datasets already outperform multigene matrices at resolving the deepest nodes in the lichen‑forming fungal tree and may be the only realistic route to a fully resolved backbone. For perspective, a typical fungal genome spans 30–50 Mbp; Sanger datasets averaged only 3–5 kb. The added scale lets researchers date major radiations, probe the genetics of symbiosis, and resolve ancient splits left ambiguous by small gene sets. Nelsen et al. (2020) assembled multi-locus data (largely mined from genomes and transcriptomes) for 3,300 lichenised fungi making up about a quarter of Lecanoromycetes and produced the largest time-calibrated phylogeny to date. Their tree suggests a Mesozoic ancestor that was a crustose microlichen with a Trebouxia partner. Foliose and fruticose forms evolved repeatedly, first appearing in the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous and diversifying further in the Cenozoic. The study also found evidence that lichen symbiosis is not a one-way evolutionary dead-end.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist. It is not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. It was developed and studied as a research compound for metabolic pathways.
It binds to and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates genes related to fatty acid oxidation and energy use. This activation alters transcription in tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver. The full range of downstream effects in humans is not fully established.
No, cardarine is not known to occur naturally in plants, animals, or humans. It is a synthetic molecule produced for laboratory research. Products labeled as cardarine should therefore be treated as manufactured chemicals with variable purity.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist developed for research. It has not been approved as a medication in any country. It is classified as an unapproved drug and a prohibited substance in sport.