preclinical models is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2026-05-06. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
In the fitness and bodybuilding literature, cardarine is frequently discussed as an endurance agent or fat-loss compound, although such claims are not supported by robust clinical evidence. Online descriptions often mix animal data, user anecdotes, and marketing language. Researchers who study PPARδ agonists distinguish between receptor activation in controlled experiments and unsupervised use of unverified products. The latter introduces unknown purity, dose, and interactions, making reported experiences difficult to interpret scientifically.
GW501516 acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in transcription of genes related to lipid handling and energy use. Activation of PPARδ can shift skeletal muscle toward greater fatty acid oxidation in animal models, which is one reason it drew interest for metabolic disease and exercise research. The exact downstream effects depend on tissue, species, dose, and duration. Human data are sparse, so many proposed benefits remain hypotheses rather than established clinical outcomes.
Laboratory studies have examined GW501516 in cell cultures and rodents for conditions such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and obesity. Some trials in humans were initiated, but development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in certain models. Those findings do not prove that the compound causes cancer in people, but they contributed to regulatory caution. Later reviews often describe the evidence as preliminary and insufficient for assessing long-term safety.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
GW501516 acts as a selective agonist at PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid handling and energy metabolism. Activation of PPARδ in preclinical models increases fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and exercise endurance in rodents. These effects have made the compound a subject of metabolic research and also a target for sport anti-doping rules. In humans, however, controlled studies are limited, and whether similar endurance or metabolic changes occur at tolerated exposures remains an open question. The receptor’s broad tissue distribution also means downstream effects may vary by organ and condition.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Solubility | Soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide and some organic solvents; practically insoluble in water | Solvent choice affects laboratory handling |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated, protected from light | Common condition for research samples |
| Analytical method | Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) | Used for identification and quantification in biological or product samples |
| Common synonyms | GW501516, GW-501516, GSK-516, Endurobol | Names found in research and anti-doping literature |
| Regulatory status | Unapproved therapeutic; prohibited in competitive sport | Status can vary by country and context |
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Regulatory treatment varies, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine. Sports authorities list GW501516 as a prohibited substance, and it is banned at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency code. Many countries restrict sales for human consumption, while online vendors market it as a research chemical. Such products may lack purity data, and their actual contents can differ from the label. Purchasing or possessing cardarine may carry legal consequences depending on jurisdiction. The compound is not a dietary supplement ingredient in regulated markets.
GW501516 acts on PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis. In animal studies, activation of this receptor was associated with increased endurance and changes in lipid metabolism. Human trials examined effects on blood lipids and other metabolic markers, but the compound did not advance to approval. Rodent studies later reported tumors in multiple tissues at doses used in those experiments. Whether those findings translate to human risk remains uncertain, and the clinical relevance of the animal data is still debated.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
==== Usage in global industry ==== Direct oxidation of ethylene was patented by Lefort in 1931. This method was repeatedly modified for industrial use, and at least four major variations are known. They all use oxidation by oxygen or air and a silver-based catalyst, but differ in the technological details and hardware implementations. Union Carbide (currently a division of Dow Chemical Company) was the first company to develop the direct oxidation process. A similar production method was developed by Scientific Design Co., but it received wider use because of the licensing system – it accounts for 25% of the world's production and for 75% of world's licensed production of ethylene oxide. A proprietary variation of this method is used by Japan Catalytic Chemical Co., which adapted synthesis of both ethylene oxide and ethylene glycol in a single industrial complex. A different modification was developed Shell International Chemicals BV. Their method is rather flexible with regard to the specific requirements of specific industries; it is characterized by high selectivity with respect to the ethylene oxide product and long lifetime of the catalyst (3 years). It accounts for about 40% of global production. Older factories typically use air for oxidation whereas newer plants and processes, such as METEOR and Japan Catalytic, favor oxygen.
In White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness, Frankenberg argues race shapes both the lives of the oppressor (white people, according to Frankenberg) as well as the oppressed. Frankenberg examined ways in which Ashkenazi Jewish women experience a sense of cultural belonging, but do not consider their Jewish faith to be classified a formal "race". Gillian Freeman (1929–2019) novelist and screenwriter; best known for her screenplays for The Leather Boys, I Want What I Want (film) and Only Lovers Left Alive (novel) Hadley Freeman (born 15 May 1978) American British journalist based in London; writes for the Jewish Chronicle, The Guardian and Vogue; of Austro-Hungarian and Polish Jewish ancestry. Anna Freud CBE (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982); psychoanalyst of Austrian–Jewish descent; born in Vienna; youngest child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and followed path of father and contributed to field of psychoanalysis; alongside Hermine Hug-Hellmuth and Melanie Klein, is considered founder of psychoanalytic child psychology. Stephen Fry (born 24 August 1957) is an English actor, broadcaster, comedian, director, narrator and writer. He has written novels, non fiction, scripts and autobiography.
AST exists in two isoenzymes namely mitochondrial form and cytoplasmic form. It is found in highest concentration in the liver, followed by heart, muscle, kidney, brain, pancreas, and lungs. This wide range of AST containing organs makes it a relatively less specific indicator of liver damage compared to ALT. An increase of mitochondrial AST in bloods is highly suggestive of tissue necrosis in myocardial infarction and chronic liver disease. More than 80% of the liver AST activity are contributed by mitochondrial form of the isoenzymes, while the circulating AST in blood are contributed by cytoplasmic form of AST. AST is especially markedly raised in those with liver cirrhosis. AST can be released from a variety of other tissues and if the elevation is less than two times the normal AST, no further workup needs to be performed if a patient is proceeding to surgery. In certain pregnancy related conditions such as hyperemesis gravidarum, AST can reach as high as 73 IU/L, 66 IU/L in pre-eclampsia, and 81 IU/L in HELLP syndrome.
== Chemical structure == α-Amanitin is a highly modified bicyclic octapeptide consisting of an outer and an inner loop. The outer loop is formed by peptide bonds between a carboxyl terminus of an amino acid to the subsequent amino terminus of the next residue. The inner loop is closed by an oxidized tryptathionine linkage between 6-hydroxy-tryptophan and cysteine, which is responsible for holding the molecule in the proper conformation for binding to its protein target. In addition, α-amanitin is decorated with modified amino acid side chains (2S,3R,4R)-4,5-dihydroxy-isoleucine, trans-4-hydroxy-proline, which gives its high affinity for RNA polymerase II and III.
== Epidemiology == Cardiovascular disease, which is predominantly the clinical manifestation of atherosclerosis, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Almost all children older than age 10 in developed countries have aortic fatty streaks, with coronary fatty streaks beginning in adolescence. In 1953, a study was published that examined the results of 300 autopsies performed on U.S. soldiers who had died in the Korean War. Despite the average age of the soldiers being just 22 years old, 77% of them had visible signs of coronary atherosclerosis. This study showed that heart disease could affect people at a younger age and was not just a problem for older individuals. In 1992, a report showed that microscopic fatty streaks were found in the left anterior descending artery in over 50% of children aged 10–14, and 8% had even more advanced lesions with more accumulations of extracellular lipid. A 2005 report of a study from 1985 to 1995 found that around 87% of aortas and 30% of coronary arteries in the age group 5–14 years had fatty streaks, which increased with age.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Oxidative phosphorylation ADP/ATP translocase (ANT) imports adenosine diphosphate ADP from the cytosol and exports ATP from the mitochondrial matrix, which are key transport steps for oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotic organisms. ADP from the cytosol is transported back into the mitochondrion for ATP synthesis and the synthesised ATP, produced from oxidative phosphorylation, is exported out of the mitochondrion for use in the cytosol, providing the cells with its main energy currency.
== Necessary examinations during treatment == Complete blood counts should be obtained before starting chemotherapy and in short intervals afterwards. Platelet counts should be done at the time of expected nadir (lowest number of platelets) and at least until remission starts (platelet counts greater than 50,000). The patients should be watched for signs of allergy, fluid retention and anemia during and after therapy with Neumega. Preexisting ascites and pericardial effusions should be monitored closely for signs of worsening.
Another case was that of Ismil bin Kadar, who was initially sentenced to death for a 2005 robbery-murder case in Boon Lay, but eventually acquitted of the crime as the Court of Appeal found that based on the evidence, Ismil was not involved in the case and that it was solely his younger brother Muhammad bin Kadar who was responsible for the robbery and murder; Muhammad was subsequently executed in April 2015. Successful clemency applications are thought to be even rarer. Since 1965, the presidential clemency has been granted seven times to death row inmates, whose sentences were all commuted to life imprisonment (not counting the clemency pleas of the underaged offenders serving TPP). The most recent case was in August 2025, when convicted drug trafficker Tristan Tan Yi Rui was granted clemency by President Tharman Shanmugaratnam, who commuted Tan's death sentence to life imprisonment. Prior to Tan's pardon, the last presidential clemency to be granted was in April 1998, when President Ong Teng Cheong pardoned a 19-year-old death row inmate and convicted murderer Mathavakannan Kalimuthu, commuting his death sentence to life imprisonment. Previously, other than the Court of Appeal, offenders were allowed to file criminal or civil appeals to the Privy Council in London, where the judges could hear their appeals once they exhausted all avenues of appeal in Singapore. This avenue of appeal was fully abolished for all criminal and civil matters in April 1994. One case in which an appeal to the Privy Council was successful was the case of murderer Mohamed Yasin bin Hussin.
On a stained blood smear, platelets appear as dark purple spots, about 20% of the diameter of red blood cells. The smear reveals size, shape, qualitative number, and clumping. A healthy adult typically has 10 to 20 times more red blood cells than platelets.
=== 1989 === January 7, 1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies, he was succeeded by his son Akihito. January 20, 1989 – George H. W. Bush becomes president of the United States. February 1989 – End of Soviet–Afghan War; continuation of internal conflict without Soviet troops. June 3, 1989 – Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini dies. June 4, 1989 – Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 in Beijing, People's Republic of China. June 4, 1989 – Solidarity's decisive victory in the first partially free parliamentary elections in post-war Poland sparks off a succession of anti-communist Revolutions of 1989 across Central, later South-East and Eastern Europe. August 14, 1989 – South African president Pieter Willem Botha resigns in reaction to the implementation of Tripartite Accord. August 19, 1989 – The opening of the border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. August 23, 1989 – Soviet Politburo member Alexander Yakovlev denounces the secret protocols of the Hitler-Stalin Pact. August 24, 1989 – Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes the prime minister of Poland forming the first non-communist government in the Communist bloc. October 23, 1989 – End of Communism in Hungary. November 9, 1989 – Fall of the Berlin Wall. November 24, 1989 – Communist Party of Czechoslovakia leaders resign during the Velvet Revolution, effectively ending one-party rule in that country.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Louisiana governor Jeff Landry requested the deployment of the National Guard for large upcoming events: the Bayou Classic college football event November 27–29, New Year Eve and Day celebrations, and Mardi Gras celebrations in February. The New Orleans police superintendent said, "We are working together and planning their deployment." New Orleans had been the site of the January 1, 2025, terrorism attack in which 14 persons lost their lives and at least 57 persons were injured.
In June 2007, The New England Journal of Medicine published a meta-analysis that associated the drug with an increased risk of heart attack. GSK had reportedly tried to persuade one of the authors, Steven Nissen, not to publish it, after receiving an advance copy from one of the journal's peer reviewers, a GSK consultant. In July 2007, FDA scientists suggested that rosiglitazone had caused 83,000 excess heart attacks between 1999 and 2007. The FDA placed restrictions on the drug, including adding a boxed warning, but did not withdraw it. (In 2013, the FDA rejected that the drug had caused excess heart attacks.) A Senate Finance Committee inquiry concluded in 2010, that GSK had sought to intimidate scientists who had concerns about rosiglitazone. In February that year the company tried to halt publication of an editorial about the controversy by Nissen in the European Heart Journal. The results of GSK's RECORD trial were published in June 2009. It confirmed an association between rosiglitazone and an increased risk of heart failure and fractures, but not of heart attack, and concluded that it "does not increase the risk of overall cardiovascular morbidity or mortality compared with standard glucose-lowering drugs." Steven Nissan and Kathy Wolkski argued that the study's low event rates reduced its statistical power. In September 2009, rosiglitazone was suspended in Europe. The results of the RECORD study were confirmed in 2013, by the Duke Clinical Research Institute, in an independent review required by the FDA.
=== Thermo redox === This technology is based on decomposition of explosive substance followed by the reduction of the nitro groups. Most military grade explosives are nitro compounds and have an abundance of NO2 groups on them. Explosive vapors are pulled into an adsorber at a high rate and then pyrolized. The presence of nitro groups in the pyrolized products is then detected. This technology has significantly more false alarms because many other harmless compounds also have an abundance of nitro groups. For example, most fertilizers have nitro groups which are falsely identified as explosives, and the sensitivity of this technology is also fairly low. A popular detector using this technology is Scintrex Trace EVD 3000.
==== Section C: Biology and Food Technology ==== The activities of Section C deal with the application of refrigeration technologies to life sciences and food sciences. Commission C1 Cryobiology, cryomedicine and health products is particularly focused on the application of refrigeration technologies on various branches of medicine: cryosurgery and oncology, cryotherapy, blood, organs and tissue preservation, health products (especially vaccines and thermosensitive preparations). On the one hand, the work focuses on the biological and biochemical aspects of the effects of refrigeration on organs, tissues and treated products, and on the other hand, on the applied refrigeration techniques and technologies. Commission C2 food science and engineering is focused more particularly on the application of refrigeration technologies in the area of food sciences: preservation (refrigeration, freezing); hygiene and safety in its microbiological aspect; process (lyophilisation, cryoconcentration, cryoprecipitation, partial or total crystallisation). The work focuses on establishing a model for the transfer of heat and matter during refrigeration treatments, on the effects of refrigeration on food products, and on the evolution kinetics of products kept in cold storage. The work deals with the impact of the integrity of the cold chain on the quality of food, including in warm climate countries.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression related to fatty acid metabolism and energy balance. This mechanism has been studied mainly in animals and cell models, not established as a safe human therapy.
No. It is not an anabolic-androgenic steroid; it is a synthetic PPARδ agonist. Because it is banned in sport, it is sometimes grouped with doping agents even though its chemical class differs from steroids.
Human data are limited and development was discontinued, so major effects and long-term risks are not well characterized. Some early studies examined metabolic markers, but they do not provide a basis for unsupervised use.
Cardarine targets PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. It does not bind the androgen receptor in the way SARMs do.